Pragmatism in America ---Philosophical Tips for Better Understanding America（１）

Front Cover Picture: Charles Sanders Peirce

This essay was written for a training session for Japanese high school students participating in the Science Olympiad in the United States.

The Emergence of Pragamatism in USA

Pragmatism was a philosophical movement that emerged in the United States in the 1870s against the backdrop of a society that had cultivated a tradition of practicality since its founding. [i] It is important here to be cautious not to confuse the term with "practicalism" or "utilitarianism," since what it aims at goes far beyond mere practicality or utility. The history, key figures, and principles of this movement can be gleaned from the "Pragmatism" entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, which will be summarized  as below:

Pragmatism was launched in the 1870s, by American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), William James(1842-1910), and John Dewey (1859-1952). These three are referred to as the "classical pragmatist triumvirate." Following the deaths of Peirce and James, Dewey took the lead, along with contemporaries like George Herbert Mead(1863-1931) and C. S. Lewis (1898-1963), and later, W. V. O. Quine (1908-2000), Hillary Putnam (1926-2016), Donald Davidson (1917-2003), and Richard Rorty (1931-2007) carried on the tradition. Of course, many other notable philosophers and thinkers have been involved in this movement as well. [i]

Thus, from the late 19th century through the 20th century and into the early 21st century, pragmatism has been consistently passed down. However, it hasn't always been smooth sailing during this time. John Dewey, the youngest member of the original triumvirate succeeding Peirce and James, lacked enthusiastic successors, and after his death in 1952, stagnation set in from the 1940s, persisting until the late 1970s. Richard Rorty, deeply influenced by Dewey's philosophy, played a crucial role in revitalizing pragmatism. His publication of Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature in 1979 sparked a resurgence, bringing pragmatism back into the limelight from 1980 onwards, continuing to the present day. Notable figures actively contributing to pragmatism today include Stephen Stich (1943-), Susan Haack (1945-), Robert Brandom (1950-), Cornel West (1953-), Cheryl Misak (1961-), and others.

Looking at it this way, the history of pragmatism from its inception to the present day coincides with a period in which America, previously divided by the Civil War, unified, established its system, made its debut on the world stage, and rose to become a major power, experiencing unprecedented prosperity. The birth and growth of pragmatism owe much to American society, and conversely, one could argue that American society owes much to pragmatism. They have mutually influenced each other. To understand pragmatism, it seems necessary to understand American society, and conversely, understanding American society may require an understanding of pragmatism.

The essence of pragmatism

The essence of pragmatismcan be summarized in the following way:

"An ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily; the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and impractical ideas are to be rejected." Therefore, ideas that fail to function satisfactorily and do not yield practical results are discarded as meaningless. To borrow the words of James and Dewey, it can be distilled into: "The truth is what ‘works’: true hypotheses are useful, and vice versa."

At first glance, this might seem like a simplistic approach, but it is not. It contains a sharp critique of the dualism that has persisted since ancient Greece. It challenges the notion that theory and practice, or knowledge and action, exist as separate dimensions. By emphasizing that practice and action are the foundation of theory and knowledge, pragmatism has influenced not only American but also European intellectual circles. In essence, it involves ceasing the pursuit of abstract, absolute, and universal ideals detached from the realities of human society, and instead addressing issues inherent in human society and prioritizing practicality and action towards their resolution. In other words, theory and knowledge are judged based on practice and action. While engaging in inquiry, therefore, philosophers should adhere to the maxim: "What concrete practical difference would it make if my theory were true and its rival(s) false?"

Rorty, the leading figure of neo-pragmatism,[iii] who was deeply inspired by Dewey's philosophy, turned his attention to culture in light of these ideas. He argued that culture, traditionally considered a static heritage, is an ongoing conversation in which interpretations of evolving practices and activities unfold. He asserted that the purpose of philosophy lies in exploring how various voices from fields such as science, philosophy, art, ethics, religion, and others, which constitute the dynamic conversation of culture, are related. Essentially, he advocated for a departure from traditional epistemology centered on the pursuit of universal, absolute, and transcendental ideals, and instead emphasized the pursuit of understanding the practices of relative cultures—the art of understanding—as the proper domain of epistemology.

Continued in (2)and (3)

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[i] This essay was originally written in Japanese for students interested in studying at an American university.

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