A Declaration for Classical Chinese Tea: Insights from Ancient Chinese Thought on Tea "update 2024.10.6"

The relationship between ancient Chinese thought and tea is deeply intertwined throughout history, and various philosophical and cultural values have been associated with tea across different periods. Depending on the development of thought and the social context, this relationship is believed to have manifested in different forms. For instance, Confucianism, which values benevolence and propriety, may have regarded tea as a symbol of social order. Meanwhile, Daoism, which emphasizes harmony with nature, likely viewed tea as an important means of attaining unity with nature. This paper aims to provide an overview of the evolution of ancient thought and consider the desires each philosophical school may have projected onto tea. By understanding how each philosophy shaped the perspectives and values around tea, this paper ultimately seeks to explore the essence of tea itself. In doing so, we aim to reconstruct the fundamental worldview revealed through the practice of tea and its underlying philosophical significance, even in our everyday lives.

1. The Evolution of Ancient Chinese Thought

1.1Ancient Chinese thought

Ancient Chinese thought developed gradually from around the 6th century BCE. Prior to the emergence of Confucianism, Chinese thought primarily revolved around religious and philosophical traditions that centered on the worship of nature and ancestors. The essence of thought during this time focused on the harmony between heaven (the cosmos) and humans, with an emphasis on understanding the relationship between changes in the natural world and human society, and adapting to these changes. For example, the yin-yang and five elements theory explained how the balance between yin and yang in the cosmos and the cyclical interactions of the five elements—wood, fire, earth, metal, and water—affected human life. This concept of unity and harmony with nature laid the foundation for the subsequent development of various schools of thought, including Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, Legalism, Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism, and Yangmingism.

• 1.1.1 Confucianism (around 6th century BCE): Emphasized social order and ethics, pursuing propriety and harmony in human relationships. Confucian thought emerged during the socially unstable period of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, aiming to restore social order. The frequent conflicts and societal chaos of the time led to the Confucian emphasis on ethics and propriety as means to restore order and stability.

• 1.1.2 Daoism (6th–4th century BCE): Aimed for harmony with nature and aspired to the principle of wu wei (non-action), focusing on individual inner harmony. Daoism rejected societal norms and artificial institutions, idealizing the adherence to natural laws. For example, Laozi taught that "a ruler should intervene as little as possible," criticizing political interference for hindering the natural way of life. Thus, Daoism is believed to have prioritized personal freedom and natural harmony over social control.

• 1.1.3 Mohism (around 5th century BCE): Advocated for egalitarianism and utilitarianism, valuing the benefit of society as a whole and a frugal lifestyle. Mohist thought developed during the tumultuous Warring States period, aiming to correct social inequalities caused by incessant warfare and to provide equal benefits to all people. A particular emphasis was placed on avoiding unnecessary luxury and living efficiently and practically, which garnered support from the general populace.

• 1.1.4 Legalism (around 4th century BCE): Prioritized efficiency and the strict application of law in governance, with the goal of maintaining order. Legalist thought was particularly implemented by Qin Shi Huang, who unified China through the establishment of a centralized system and strong legal control. Policies were adopted to preserve domestic order using strict laws and penalties, aiming to streamline governance. Based on Legalist ideas, Qin Shi Huang actively promoted centralized policies to strengthen state authority by limiting individual freedoms.

• 1.1.5 Buddhism (introduced after the Common Era): Buddhism was introduced from India through the Silk Road and began to spread significantly in China during the Later Han Dynasty. It subsequently permeated various regions through the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties periods, with diverse sects like Zen Buddhism exerting a profound influence on Chinese thought. Unlike Confucianism or Daoism, Buddhism emphasized inner enlightenment and individual spiritual practice. Zen Buddhism, in particular, integrated native Chinese thought, emphasizing intuitive insight and the importance of spiritual practice in daily life, thereby establishing its unique place in Chinese culture. Thus, Buddhism provided a new spiritual value system that contrasted with the Confucian focus on social order and the Daoist harmony with nature, by emphasizing personal inner growth and spiritual freedom.

• 1.1.6 Neo-Confucianism (Song Dynasty): Developed Confucian thought by emphasizing li (principle) and introspection, exploring individual moral growth. In Neo-Confucianism, li represented the fundamental principle of the cosmos that provided order to all existence. Neo-Confucian scholars believed that deeply understanding li and reflecting it in one's life and actions was of utmost importance. For instance, Zhu Xi compiled the Four Books, encouraging the exploration of li through daily introspection, a process that would harmonize li with one's heart, leading to moral development.

• 1.1.7 Yangmingism (Ming Dynasty): Focused on intuition and practice, aiming for the unity of mind and action. Yangmingism emphasized "the unity of knowledge and action" in contrast to Neo-Confucianism, which tended to separate theoretical exploration from practical action. Wang Yangming argued that knowing li (abstract principle) could only truly be achieved through action, regarding thought and practice as inseparable. This led to a practical doctrine in which moral knowledge could only manifest its true value through behavior.

2. Philosophies and Their Pursuit of Tea: A Hypothetical Exploration

2.1 Confucianism and Tea

In Confucian thought, tea might be seen as a symbol of propriety and social order, as well as a means to maintain mental and physical health for longevity. The act of drinking tea could be considered an important ritual to embody etiquette and social harmony. For example, tea ceremonies often involved formal rituals where tea was served to elders and guests as a sign of respect. Such rituals were positioned as expressions of social harmony and reverence, grounded in Confucian values. Serving tea during a gathering demonstrated mutual respect, and the pure flavor of tea embodied the moral purity that Confucianism sought. Confucians emphasized tranquility and order of the mind through tea, focusing on maintaining spiritual equilibrium. This spiritual pursuit led Confucians to value the mild flavor and natural bitterness of tea, viewing it as embodying the virtue of the "golden mean." In Confucianism, the "golden mean" signifies avoiding extremes and maintaining appropriate balance in all matters. Therefore, tea drinking was seen as a means to balance emotions and thoughts, striving for mental tranquility. The balanced characteristics of tea symbolized the harmony and stability that Confucians idealized, serving as a means for practicing these virtues in daily life.

2.2 Daoism and Tea

In Daoist thought, tea might be viewed as a medium for pursuing unity with nature and as a means for health preservation according to natural principles, aiming for longevity. Drinking tea could be seen as a way to deepen inner tranquility and harmony with nature. Daoist practitioners, for example, might have brewed tea in the mountains to achieve unity with nature, striving for mental peace and the state of wu wei. According to Daoist lore, practitioners brewed tea in quiet forests, enjoying its aroma along with the sounds of nature to experience becoming one with nature. Such practices went beyond mere drinking, carrying the aspect of a spiritual ritual and providing a means for practitioners to attain deep unity with nature. Daoists sought to drink tea for a spirituality that calms the mind and allows one to dissolve into nature, favoring the transparency of consciousness and profound relaxation that tea brings. The natural aroma and flavor of tea were considered important elements for experiencing unity with nature from a Daoist perspective.

2.3 Mohism and Tea

In Mohist thought, tea might be seen as a practical tool for maintaining health, given Mohism’s focus on frugal living and practical benefits. It is speculated that tea was used to soothe the body and recover from fatigue after labor. Mohists likely analyzed the effects of tea scientifically, appreciating its efficacy. For example, they might have observed that the components in tea helped restore bodily energy and remove fatigue-inducing substances, and thereby utilized tea for health maintenance. Such empirical understanding made tea a fitting tool for Mohist utilitarianism. The vitality and physical refreshment provided by tea would have been seen as necessary for enhancing the efficiency of society as a whole. Mohists particularly valued tea for its ability to invigorate the body and reduce physical exhaustion, highly appreciating its practical utility.

2.4 Legalism and Tea

From a Legalist perspective, tea might have been utilized as a means for officials and rulers to perform their duties efficiently. Legalists likely used tea to maintain concentration and quickly recover from physical fatigue, supporting the efficiency of governance. The stimulating properties of tea were considered indispensable for enhancing administrative efficiency, particularly emphasizing teas with strong awakening effects. Legalists sought mental clarity and swift decision-making through the mental awakening provided by tea.

2.5 Buddhism and Tea

In Buddhism, especially Zen Buddhism, tea might be seen as an indispensable element of spiritual practice. Zen monks used the awakening effects of tea to aid meditation and deepen concentration. As the expression "Zen and tea are one flavor" suggests, drinking tea was a form of Zen practice itself, providing practitioners with the power to focus on "the present moment." Zen monks pursued spiritual awakening and liberation

from delusions through tea. For example, Eisai, a Rinzai monk, preached the importance of tea in practice and authored Kissa Yojoki to spread its benefits. During spiritual practice, monks drank tea to enhance concentration during meditation and reach deeper states of mind. Specifically, during long meditation sessions, tea was used to alleviate fatigue and drowsiness, its bitterness and aroma sharpening the mind and aiding in reaching profound meditative states. This bitterness was believed to enhance mental acuity, guiding practitioners into a deep state of meditation that exists only in the "here and now."

2.6 Neo-Confucianism and Tea

Neo-Confucianism emphasized the harmony between li (universal principles) and qi (energy or material basis), believing that the mind and body of humans are formed by the balance of li and qi. As a philosophy that integrated elements from Confucianism (social order and ethics), Daoism (harmony with nature and tranquility), and Buddhism (introspection and spiritual awakening), Neo-Confucian scholars constantly sought to achieve mental and physical harmony through calm reflection on li. This harmony served as the foundation for social order and ethics. The purity and transparency of tea symbolized the clarity of reason and the purity of spirit, and the clean flavor of tea was likely valued as a means of maintaining the composure necessary for exploring li. Moreover, for Neo-Confucians, the chaqi (energy of tea) was thought to harmonize with the cosmic qi, playing an important role in balancing the mind and body. Drinking tea was believed to help achieve relaxation and focus, providing a clear state of consciousness for contemplating li deeply.

2.7 Yangmingism and Tea

Yangmingism, characterized by its emphasis on the unity of intuition and practice, viewed the act of drinking tea as part of self-cultivation. Yangmingists believed that one should not separate theory and practice; instead, the realization of truth must be achieved through actual action. Drinking tea was considered a way to cleanse the mind and prepare for intuitively correct action. While Neo-Confucianism pursued deep exploration of li through introspection to balance li and qi, Yangmingism centered on the "mind" and emphasized the implementation of knowledge through practice. In Neo-Confucianism, tea was consumed as a means to assist introspection and enhance rationality, whereas in Yangmingism, tea was used to strengthen decisiveness for immediate action. Both utilized tea for mental and physical harmony, but their purposes and methodologies differed significantly.

3. The Evaluation Criteria for Tea in Classical Thought

In ancient thought, Confucianism emphasized propriety and harmony, Daoism unity with nature, Buddhism meditation and awakening, Mohism health maintenance, Legalism efficient governance and mental alertness, Neo-Confucianism self-cultivation through the harmony of li and qi, and Yangmingism the unity of action and intuition. Each of these philosophies imbued tea with unique flavors and characteristics. Thus, to fully appreciate the inherent power of tea, it is necessary to evaluate tea based on each school of thought from a holistic perspective.

3.1 Confucian Criteria for Tea

Harmony and Propriety: In Confucian thought, tea is regarded as a symbol of social rituals and harmony. During tea tasting, emphasis is placed on the harmony and propriety inherent in the tea's characteristics. The tea's aroma, flavor, and chaqi should be gentle, balanced, and well-coordinated. It is also important to assess whether the tea imparts a sense of mental tranquility and balance to the body. Furthermore, the effects of tea are considered from the perspective of the Confucian virtues of ren (benevolence) and the "golden mean." Ren emphasizes harmony between individuals, and tea is expected to enhance connections with others. The "golden mean" implies avoiding extremes and maintaining balance, with tea's mild flavor and natural bitterness considered to bring about mental stability and balance. Thus, Confucians likely sought to drink tea to balance emotions and thoughts, open the senses, and maintain mental tranquility.

3.2 Daoist Criteria for Tea

Unity with Nature: In Daoist thought, tea is seen as a means to feel unity with nature. During tea tasting, it is important to assess whether the chaqi reflects the essence of nature and whether it brings about an integration of mind and body. The experience of natural chaqi flowing through the body and the sensation of "returning aroma" are evaluated to see if they evoke unity with nature and induce deep relaxation, with a focus on transparency as the ultimate result.

3.3 Mohist Criteria for Tea

Practicality and Health: Mohism values the practical utility of tea, particularly its health benefits. During tea tasting, emphasis is placed on whether the tea's flavor invigorates the body and has fatigue-relieving effects. It is important to experience the chaqi containing beneficial components and to feel the body regain vitality after drinking.

3.4 Legalist Criteria for Tea

Efficiency and Awakening: Legalism emphasizes the awakening effects of tea to enhance governance efficiency. During tea tasting, attention is given to the stimulating aspects of tea—whether it sharpens the mind and enhances attentiveness. The chaqi should reach the head quickly, providing an immediate sense of vitality to both mind and body.

3.5 Buddhist (Zen) Criteria for Tea

Awakening and Concentration: In Buddhism, especially Zen Buddhism, tea serves as a means of awakening and concentration. Zen aims for an enlightened state free from distractions, requiring deep concentration and mental stillness. During tea tasting, emphasis is placed on whether the flavor is simple yet promotes deep concentration. It is crucial to assess whether the chaqi spreads throughout the body and permeates the mind, dispelling distractions and guiding one into a meditative state. The balance of bitterness and astringency symbolizes mental acuity, and the awakening properties of tea are expected to aid in reaching a state of no-mind during Zen practice.

3.6 Neo-Confucian Criteria for Tea

Harmony of li and qi: Neo-Confucianism seeks harmony between the universal principles (li) and energies (qi). During tea tasting, emphasis is placed on whether the tea aids in balancing rationality and energy. The chaqi should possess transparency, calming the mind and allowing for deep contemplation and engagement with li. Additionally, Neo-Confucianism values the harmony between heaven, earth, and humans, and tea is expected to introduce the "qi" of heaven and earth into the human body. The "returning aroma" of the tea should facilitate the circulation of the body's qi with the outside world, fostering a sense of unity with the cosmos, and encouraging the perception of the cosmos within oneself. Drinking tea is seen as bringing harmony between heaven, earth, and humanity, leading to mental and physical well-being and spiritual stability.

3.7 Yangmingist Criteria for Tea

Unity of Action and Intuition: In Yangmingism, the unity of intuition and action is essential. During tea tasting, it is important to assess whether the chaqi sharpens the mind, enhances judgment, and prepares one for swift action. The chaqi should quickly permeate the mind and body, providing vitality and enhancing intuitive decision-making.

4. Conclusion: A Manifesto for Classical Chinese Tea

We explore a new definition of tea by delving into the depths of classical Chinese thought. This endeavor goes beyond a sensory evaluation of tea's taste and aroma, focusing instead on the effects of tea's chaqi on mind and body, the spiritual transformations it brings, and how these correlate with different philosophies and manifest in practice.

Classical Chinese tea is the pursuit of the profound essence of tea, grounded in diverse philosophies—Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, Legalism, Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism, and Yangmingism. The propriety and moderation valued in Confucianism, the unity with nature sought by Daoism, the pursuit of practicality and health in Mohism, the efficiency and awakening emphasized by Legalism, the awakening and concentration in Zen Buddhism, the harmony of li and qi in Neo-Confucianism, and the unity of intuition and action in Yangmingism—these spiritual qualities are explored and expressed anew through tea.

For Confucians, tea symbolizes stability and moderation, contributing to social order. For Daoists, tea embodies harmony with nature, fostering connections between the inner and outer natural world. Mohists valued tea for its health benefits, invigorating properties, and practical utility. Legalists saw the awakening properties of tea as a means to support efficient governance. In Buddhism, tea's chaqi aided in awakening and concentration during Zen practice, assisting in the pursuit of enlightenment. Neo-Confucians saw tea as a means to harmonize li and qi, aiding in introspection and the balance of mind and body. For Yangmingists, tea’s intuitive vitality promoted the unity of mind and action, supporting immediate decision-making and practice.

Thus, we aim to experience and realize the spiritual qualities and values pursued by each philosophy through the flavor and chaqi of tea, sharing this through tea gatherings, tea classes, and social media. The creation of the new field of classical Chinese tea endows the act of appreciating tea with social significance, and through daily tea drinking, aims to pursue harmony and awakening of mind and body, self-improvement, and ultimately, contribute to world peace through individual spiritual harmony.

By engaging with ancient wisdom, we strive to build a new practice of tea culture rooted in modern life and hereby declare the establishment of classical Chinese tea.