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1One of the most pressing questions Japan is now facing is how to restructure its postwar economic and business systems in a rapidly changing external and internal environment. "Globalization" is the key phrase that describes the direction in which the Japanese economy is heading. There are, however, many problems that Japan must overcome in order to win the trust of the global community.
For a long time, internationalization was associated with Westernization or Americanization in Japan. Japan borrowed what it saw as the necessary parts of Western culture, science and technology and used them to pursue its own development for its own benefit. However, the current trend of rapid globalization demands that Japan must assume its relevant economic and political responsibilities in order to achieve world peace and prosperity.
Globalization is the process in which individual lives and local communities are affected by economic and cultural forces that operate world-wide. In effect, it is the process of the world becoming a single place. Globalism is the perception of the world as a function or result of the processes of globalization upon local communities.
The word "global" has had a rapid rise since the mid-1980s, up until which time the word "international" was preferred. The rise of the word "international" itself in the eighteenth century indicated the growing importance of territorial states in organizing social relations. It can be defined as an early consequence of the world-wide perspective of European imperialism. Similarly, the rapidly increasing interest in globalization reflects a changing organization of world-wide social relations in this century. The nation has begun to have a decreasing importance as individuals and communities, gaining access to globally shared knowledge and culture, are affected by economic realities that come and go over the boundaries of the state. The basic structure of globalization is nationalism on which the concept of internationalism is based. Globalization occurs when people in a national framework are affected by global economy and communication.
Part of the complexity of globalism comes from the different ways in which globalization is approached. Some analysts embrace it enthusiastically as a positive feature of a changing world in which access to technology, information, services and markets will be of benefit to local communities. They believe that, by globalization, dominant forms of social organization will lead to universal prosperity, peace, and freedom. They even expect that perception of a global environment will lead to a global ecological concern. For this group, globalism is a term for values which treat global issues as a matter of personal and collective responsibility.
Others reject it as a form of domination by advanced countries over developing ones, in which individual distinctions of culture and society become erased by an increasingly homogeneous global culture while local economies are more firmly incorporated into a system of global capital. For this group, globalism is a political doctrine which provides, explains, and justifies an interlocking system of world trade.
2 We can see them almost every night on the TV news - thousands of refugees who have chosen to cross international borders to save their lives. What is causing these enormous floods of refugees? The answer is threefold. First, millions of people are trying to escape from political violence. Second, hunger is driving millions more from their homeland, especially in northern and eastern Africa. And third, there are over ten million environmental refugees. These people can no longer live on their own land because of drought, floods, or other environmental problems.
In today's world, larger numbers of people than ever before are asking for political asylum in other countries. One reason for this is the bad economic situation in much of the world. In bad times, people often point to minority groups as the cause of their troubles. Another reason, surprisingly, is the end of the Cold War. Until the late 1980s, communist governments in eastern Europe and the USSR did not approve of religious or political expression, and they did not allow racial or national conflicts. But as communism fell and the former Soviet Union broke up, old ethnic anger and hatred began to appear and then to explode.
Through a combination of immigration and difference in birthrate among ethnic groups, many countries in western Europe are experiencing a change in their ethnic and cultural composition.
There are various reactions to these developments. At one end of the range are the radical cosmopolitans, who view nation states and national identities as dangerously old-fashioned. At the other end are the ethnic nationalists who wish to defend the purity of their own nation against all newcomers. My own position lies between these extremes. Immigration on a modest scale brings benefits in the form of diversity and new ideas, but the pace of the present transformation in Europe worries me. I believe it inevitably invites conflict. I also believe that nations are historical communities that have the right to shape their own collective future as they see fit, and to resist developments that gradually injure their identity and sense of continuity. I do not believe that national identity can, or should, be remade at will by a cosmopolitan elite to be consistent with its own vision of how the world should be.
3 Most people find it difficult to say exactly what is covered by the term "economics." It includes some aspects of trade, but it is also concerned with taxation and government expenditure, money and banking, salaries and profits, land and rent, savings and investment, and the structure of industry and the distribution of goods.
The element that links all these subjects together under the heading of economics is scarcity. Few of the material essentials of life and none of the luxuries are available freely at all times to everyone who wants them. The scarcity of goods and services arises because the resources available at any one place and time to produce them the skilled labor, machines and raw materials are limited. The important factor in economics is not the availability of goods and services, but what is available in relation to the effective demand for them - that is, demand backed by purchasing power.
Men may be unemployed and machines idle in the motor industry, even though many more people would like to have new cars. This happens because not everyone who would like a new car can afford to buy one. Economics, then, deals with the problem of sharing out scarce resources among alternative users and uses. An economy is the environment where this sharing out takes place. Its size can range from that of a small island to the entire world.
Writing more than two centuries ago, Adam Smith introduced his concept of 'the invisible hand,' which went on to become one of the most celebrated and influential ideas of all time. His idea was that individuals seeking to promote only their own interests in the marketplace would be driven, "as if by an invisible hand," to promote the greatest good for all. Thus producers seeking to steal a market share from their rivals would develop cost-reducing innovations, which would be copied by others, and which in time would lead to lower prices for all. Farmers rush to adopt higher yielding varieties of corn of mixed species; cattlemen rush to adopt faster growing breeds of cattle; and long-distance truckers rush to install fuel-saving air foils on the top of their cabs. In each case the early adopters enjoy lower costs than their rivals and hence reap higher profits. But as the superior methods spread, increasing supplies drive prices down, causing profits to return to levels that prevail in other sectors. Those who enjoy benefits in the end are the consumers who pay lower prices.
Keynes' largest influence came from a badly organized and hard to understand book published in 1936, during the depths of the Great Depression. It was called The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Keynes' basic idea was simple. In order to keep people fully employed, governments have to run deficits when the economy is slowing That's because the private sector won't invest enough. As their markets become satisfied, businesses reduce their investments, setting in motion a dangerous cycle: less investment, fewer jobs, less consumption and even less reason for business to invest. The economy may reach perfect balance, but at a cost of high unemployment and social pain. It would be better for governments to avoid the pain in the first place by putting lots of money into the economy to get it moving again.
The notion that government deficits are good seems odd these days. For most of the past two decades, America's biggest worry has been inflation brought on by too much demand for products. But some 60 years ago, when one out of four adults couldn't find work, the problem was not enough demand. Even then, Keynes had a hard time getting his idea accepted. Most economists of the time rejected his idea and favored balanced budgets. Most politicians didn't understand his idea to begin with.
As the Depression continued, the American president, Roosevelt, tried various ways to restart the economy, but he never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. In 1938, the Depression got worse. Reluctantly, Roosevelt accepted the only new idea he hadn't yet tried.
A post-industrial society is characterized by the shift from industrial manufacturing to service industries centered on information technology. This gives a key role to knowledge production and planning. In this view, technological change is the driving force of social change as information exchange and cultural production displace heavy industry at the heart of the economy. New production processes, and a general shift of emphasis from production to consumption, make information technology and communi cations the industries of the twenty-first century. Central to these processes are the role and capabilities of computers in managing the increase in volume, speed and distance with which increasingly complex information is generated and transferred.
Pivotal to conceptions of the post-industrial society is the place of knowledge, the shifts taking place in the kinds of work people do and the related changes in the occupational structure as manual jobs give way to is white-collar, professional and service work. There has been both a sectoral redistribution of labor from the primary and secondary sectors to the service sector and a shift in the style or organization of labor towards white-collar work increasingly organized on craft rather than industrial lines. The new class structure is centrally connected to the growing importance of knowledge and technical skills in post-industrial society. That is, the major class of the emerging new society is primarily a professional class, based on knowledge rather than property.
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